Interview Q&A / SQL & DBMS

1. What are dirty reads, non-repeatable reads and phantom reads?

   A dirty read sees another transaction's uncommitted data. A non-repeatable read gets a different value for the same row on a second read. A phantom read gets a different set of rows for the same query.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
2. What are the four transaction isolation levels in SQL?

   From weakest to strongest they are READ UNCOMMITTED, READ COMMITTED, REPEATABLE READ and SERIALIZABLE. Higher levels prevent more anomalies such as dirty reads, non-repeatable reads and phantoms, at the cost of concurrency.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
3. What is a deadlock in a database and how is it handled?

   A deadlock happens when two transactions each hold a lock the other needs, so neither can proceed. The database detects the cycle and aborts one transaction as the victim, and the application should retry it.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
4. What is a partial dependency and how does 2NF remove it?

   A partial dependency is when a non-key column depends on only part of a composite primary key. 2NF requires 1NF plus no partial dependencies, which you achieve by moving that column to a table keyed by that part.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
5. What is denormalization and when would you use it?

   Denormalization deliberately adds redundant data, such as copied columns or precomputed totals, to avoid joins and speed up reads. It trades storage and write complexity for read performance, and suits read-heavy reporting.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
6. What is the difference between a surrogate key and a natural key?

   A natural key is a real-world attribute that is unique, like email or Aadhaar number. A surrogate key is a meaningless generated value, like an auto-increment id. Surrogate keys stay stable when business data changes.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read
7. What is the difference between optimistic and pessimistic locking?

   Pessimistic locking locks the row up front so others must wait, assuming conflicts are likely. Optimistic locking takes no lock and checks at update time, usually with a version number, whether someone else changed the row.

   IntermediateQuick answer1 min read